Missione umanitaria in Uzbekistan Ospedali Riuniti di Bergamo

 
 
 

LO SCOMPENSO CARDIACO

UCCIDE IL DOPPIO DI UN TUMORE  

 

Ascolta una pagina dal Libro LA SPERANZA NON DELUDE sul canale you tube di Santina in cui si parla della Terapia Intensiva in cui Mamma ha trascorso 109 giorni: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VHC0Dw699D8&feature=channel_page

I. PREMESSA 

DEDICO QUESTA PAGINA WEB AL DOTTOR MORENO FAVARATO CHE HA SALVATO MIA MADRE NELLA NOTTE DELL’ARRESTO CARDIACO E CHE HA PRESO PARTE ALLA  MISSIONE IN UZBEKISTAN A FIANCO DEL DOTTOR ORAZIO VALSECCHI. DEDICO INOLTRE QUESTA PAGINA AL DOTTOR ATTILIO IACOVONI, IL CARDIOLOGO CHE DA PIU’ DI DUE ANNI SEGUE CON PASSIONE SANTINA ZUCCHINELLI, A LORO LA MIA PIU’ GRANDE RICONOSCENZA. DON GIGI

Agli Ospedali Riuniti di Bergamo un gruppo di ben 280 di medici – e personale altamente specializzato – lotta contro questa tremenda verità: l’infarto uccide il doppio di un tumore! A capo di questo piccolo paese che dichiara guerra allo scompenso cardiaco vi è il Prof Paolo Ferrazzi. Il Suo Dipartimento Cardiovascolare organizza ogni anno missioni umanitarie nei paesi particolarmente bisognosi. Lo scorso febbraio il Dottor Orazio Valsecchi è partito per l’Uzbekistan a capo di una missione finanziata con i proventi del libro su Santina Zucchinelli dal titolo Roccia del mio Cuore è Dio. Qui di seguito viene riporatata la relazione della Missione ed una scheda in inglese per gli appassionati che volessero approfondire ed aiutare la missione ardua di Paolo Ferrazzi e di Orazio Valsecchi, esperto valente di emodinamica. Tra i tanti possibili articoli sull’emodinamica abbiamo scelto un recente articolo scientifico dell’anno 2004 molto importante ( e citato da decine di articoli di alta specializzazione)  apparso in Circulation. 2004;109:701-705.© 2004 American Heart Association, Inc. Ecco il titolo del loro importante lavoro: Virmani, Renu; Giulio Guagliumi, Andrew Farb, Giuseppe Musumeci, Niccolo Grieco, Teresio Motta, Laurian Mihalcsik, Maurizio Tespili, Orazio Valsecchi, & Frank D. Kolodgie (2004). “Localized Hypersensitivity and Late Coronary Thrombosis Secondary to a Sirolimus-Eluting Stent”. Circulation 109: 701–706. DOI:10.1161/01.CIR.0000116202.41966.D4. PMID 1474497.(cliccando sulla sequenza numerica si otttiene il numero di articoli che hanno ripreso i risultati dello studio).

“Lo scompenso cardiaco  colpisce in Europa oltre sette milioni di persone, registrando 450 mila decessi l’anno, una mortalità doppia rispetto ai tumori. L’incremento del casi, intorno al 12% annuo, è al centro dell’attenzione di tutto il Dipartimento cardiovascolare perché richiede un’attenzione multidisciplinare, a 360° . La sindrome è infatti collegata soprattutto all’aumento dell’età media, ma i pazienti anziani, e talvolta anche i grandi anziani, affetti da scompenso cardiaco, hanno oggi bisogno di cure personalizzate che rispondano ad una aspettativa di qualità di vita elevata. Da un lato non possono essere candidati al trapianto cardiaco e dall’altro sono sempre meno disposti a vivere in modo limitato, tra letto e poltrona, con il rischio di richiedere ospedalizzazioni frequenti ed a volte urgenti. E’ quindi fondamentale, nella cura dello scompenso cardiaco, investire nella ricerca, nella prevenzione e nel percorso di cura.” »

PROF. PAOLO FERRAZZI

 

 

 

 

 
 

 Il Prof. Paolo Ferrazzi è nato a Venezia nel 1947, ed è attualmente il Direttore del Dipartimento Cardiovascolare, nonché dell’Unità Operativa di Cardiochirurgia degli Ospedali Riuniti di Bergamo. Sotto la sua direzione lavorano circa 280 tra dirigenti medici ed infermieri professionali. Dal 1985 al 1995 è stato il Responsabile del Programma di Trapianto Cardiaco del Reparto di Cardiochirurgia di Bergamo, effettuando in termini assoluti il terzo trapianto di cuore ed il primo trapianto di cuore-polmoni nel nostro Paese. Il Prof. Ferrazzi si è occupato anche dello sviluppo sperimentale e clinico di dispositivi di assistenza ventricolare meccanica e del cuore artificiale totale, effettuando nel 1986 la più lunga assistenza ventricolare sinistra al mondo nell’adulto, e nel 1987 nel bambino. Queste importanti esperienze gli valsero la nomina a Chirurgo Responsabile del Programma per il Cuore Artificiale Svizzero (Institut de Recherche Cardiovasculaire, Sion) dal 1988 al 1991.Dal 1995 al 1999 è stato in carica come Esperto di Alta Qualificazione e Massima Autorità di Ricerca del CNR, Direttore del Programma Strategico del CNR sul “Cuore Artificiale e Trapianto Cardiaco”, e Primario presso l’IFC-CNR Ospedale G.Pasquinucci di Massa. Nel corso della sua carriera ha effettuato più di 8000 interventi cardiochirurgici a cuore aperto e più di 400 interventi di chirurgia sperimentale. E’ autore di 254 lavori scientifici pubblicati su riviste italiane ed internazionali. Nell’ambito di programmi di solidarietà internazionale, ha effettuato numerosi interventi a cuore aperto in paesi in via di sviluppo, come la Bielorussia, il Kenya, l’Arabia Saudita e l’Irak. Con decreto ministeriale del 31 Gennaio 2001 è stato nominato Esperto del Consiglio Superiore di Sanità.
Dal 2002 è stato nominato Principal Investigator in un Trial internazionale denominato STICH (Surgical Treatment of IsCHemic heart failure), sponsorizzato dal National Institute for Health -USA.A partire dal 2000 il Prof. Ferrazzi ha ideato e sviluppato un progetto per il trattamento dello scompenso cardiaco, che ha raggiunto recentemente la dignità internazionale. ( Per approfondire guarda il video di un recente intervento ad un programma televisivo su RAI 1: http://www.rai.tv/mpplaymedia/0,,Raiuno-sabatoedomenica%5e22%5e60434,00.html# ) Nel 2007 è stato nominato Cavaliere Ufficiale della Repubblica Italiana.

Nello scorso anno lo stesso Professo Paolo Ferrazzi – unitamente a Luca Lorini – si è recato in Uzbekistan per una prima missione umanitaria. Chi volesse può scaricare foto e documentazione qui di seguito riportata in formato word:

uzbekistan2007.doc

 

 

 

 

 
 
 

 

II. REPORT FINALE MISSIONE UMANITARIA IN UZBEKISTAN
TASHKENT 14 – 21 FEBBRAIO 2008

 

 

 

 

 
Con l’auspicio della REGIONE LOMBARDIA
Con l’organizzazione di: Direzione Aziendale degli Ospedali Riuniti di Bergamo, Ufficio Affari Generali, Dipartimento Cardiovascolare Clinico e di Ricerca, II° Servizio Anestesia e Rianimazione, USC Farmacia, Magazzino Generale.

 

Con il supporto di: Sig.a Santina Zucchinelli (proventi dalla vendita del libro Roccia del mio cuore è Dio di Luigi Ginami )

01 Quadro generale Esami Ematici di Santina 20-7-06 al 19-10-09

02 Emoglobina 20-7-06 al 20-7-09

03 Creatinina 20-7-06 al 20-7-09

04 Sodio 20-7-06 al 20-7-09

Pressioni 11 Aprile – 10 Maggio 2010

NUOVO 03 Quadro generale Esami Ematici di Santina dal 20-7-2009al 26-3-2011

, AB MEDICA S.p.A., Almaviva S.r.l., Boston Scientific Italia, Bracco Imaging S.r.l., Cordis Italia S.p.A., Diemme S.r.l., Medtronic Italia S.p.A.

Con la collaborazione di: Uzbekistan Airlines Sede di Roma (con l’assistenza del sig. Luigi Cecchetti dello Staff Dirigenziale).
Ambasciata Italiana in Uzbekistan, Dr. Giovanni Ricciulli Ambasciatore, Raffaele Ungaro Drug Liason Officier.

Partecipanti:Dott. Orazio Valsecchi (Responsabile della Missione), Dott. Maurizio Merlo, Dott. Amedeo Terzi, Dott. Vitaly Pak, Dott. Alessandra Fontana, Dott. Moreno Favarato, TP Silvana Crisci.

uzbekistan-1.jpg

OBIETTIVI DELLA MISSIONE

Cardiochirurgici: Assistenza all’equipe cardiochirurgia di Tashkent nell’esecuzione di interventi di BPAC e sostituzione valvolare.
Esecuzione di interventi a complessità maggiore.
Verifica dell’applicazione delle tecniche suggerite e condivise nella precedente missione.
Discussione delle indicazioni e risultati chirurgici.

Anestesiologici: Verifica della tecnica anestesiologica suggerita e condivisa nella precedente missione e assistenza a tutti gli interventi di cardiochirurgia.

Cardiologici: Controllo Ecocardiografico dei pazienti operati nella precedente missione. Screening dei pazienti per la prossima missione.

Cardiologia invasiva: Introduzione dell’approccio radiale nell’esecuzione di procedure diagnostiche e interventistiche, insegnamento e dimostrazione della tecnica con assistenza nell’esecuzione da parte di operatori locali.
Discussione di indicazioni e risultati. Workshop su approccio transradiale per la cardiologia invasiva e lettura sull’interventistica nell’infarto miocardico acuto.

RISULTATI MISSIONE 14 – 21 FEBBRAIO 08

Ricerca di supporti, raccolta, confezionamento, imballaggio, trasporto e consegna di materiali per diagnostica e interventistica cardiovascolare e strumentario per sala operatoria di Cardiochirurgia. Notevole l’impegno di tutti i partecipanti in questa fase con l’aiuto del personale della Sala operatoria di Cardiochirurgia (grazie a Cristina, Maria e Monica). Cospicua quantità di materiali consegnati al Dott. Mirijamal ZUFAROV, Direttore del Dipartimento per Interventistica del Centro di Chirurgia Vachidov, che ha espresso grande apprezzamento e riconoscenza.

Esecuzione di circa 60 consulti cardiologici con ecocardiogramma in pazienti sottoposti ad intervento cardiochirurgico nelle precedenti missioni, screening per pazienti da sottoporre a cardiochirurgia nella prossima missione, controllo dei pazienti sottoposti a procedura interventistica.

Esecuzione di tre interventi a maggior complessità, uno con l’impiego di arteria mammaria, radiale e vena safena con dimostrazione della tecnica di prelievo della radiale, un intervento di sostituzione valvolare aortica + 3 bypass con mammaria e safene, uno in un paziente con patologia complessa del tronco comune e dei tre vasi.
Assistenza cardiochirurgia, anestesiologica e perfusionistica nei tre interventi eseguiti dall’equipe di Tashkent.
Tutti gli interventi hanno fatto registrare un buon risultato con un decorso in terapia intensiva regolare.

Esecuzione di 17 procedure diagnostiche e/o interventistiche da approccio transradiale. Spiegazione e dimostrazione della tecnica.
Assistenza e supporto al Dott. Zufarov per l’esecuzione di 4 procedure con approccio radiale. Sono stati trattati pazienti mono, bi e trivasali, occlusioni complete e tronco comune protetto con impiego da uno a tre stents per paziente.

Il Dott. Valsecchi ha curato l’organizzazione di uno workshop sull’approccio radiale per i Medici del Laboratorio di Emodinamica.
Lettura magistrale del Dott. Valsecchi su “Interventistica coronarica nell’infarto miocardico acuto: L’esperienza di Bergamo, in aula magna per i Medici dell’Ospedale e Cardiologi esterni.

L’operato della missione è stato presentato in un servizio televisivo andato in onda durante il telegiornale della sera sul primo canale della televisione uzbeka martedì 19 febbraio e in due articoli sulla stampa nazionale.

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COMMENTO:

Gli obiettivi della missione sono da considerarsi completamente raggiunti.
L’equipe cardiochirurgica-anestesiologica ha collaborato con grande passione e altruismo nell’assistenza all’equipe locale con supporto tecnico, suggerimenti e incoraggiamento.
Particolare entusiasmo ha suscitato nel Dott. Zufarov e nel team dell’emodinamica l’approccio radiale alla diagnostica e interventistica.
Il numero di procedure effettuate, alcune delle quali direttamente dal Dott. Zufarov, il successo ottenuto in tutte le procedure, la discussione delle indicazioni e risultati, hanno conferito un peso particolare all’aspetto di Cardiologia Interventistica della missione.

Si è trattato di una missione ad alto costo e impegno per tutti i partecipanti. Le difficoltà operative sono ancora notevoli, l’accoglienza ambientale è apparsa particolarmente favorevole in ambito di cardiologia interventistica. Stupore, grande apprezzamento e gratitudine per la quantità di materiali donati.

La lettura sull’infarto ha trovato un uditorio nutrito e qualificato. Numerose le domande sul modello organizzativo, la gestione del programma, i risultati e le ricadute cliniche.
Lo workshop sull’approccio radiale per gli Emodinamisti ha riscosso particolare successo per la formula informale e interattiva con grande interesse e partecipazione dei Medici e con riconoscimento per la dimostrazione pratica di ampia fattibilità.

Nelle parole di saluto e ringraziamento del Dott. Zufarov per Bergamo, il suo Ospedale, la sua Direzione, il Dipartimento Cardiovascolare, tutta la stima, la fiducia e l’apprezzamento per queste Istituzioni e la precisa richiesta, già espressa dal Ministro della Salute Dott. F.G. Nazirovdurante l’incontro al Ministero, di una fattiva collaborazione futura nell’ambito di un impegno internazionale condiviso dall’Ambasciatore Italiano a Tashkent Dr. Giovanni Ricciulli che ci ha ospitato per una gradita serata di cordialità.
L’ impegno, la fatica e la determinazione di tutti i partecipanti alla missione sono stati molto apprezzati e compensati dal pieno successo di questa difficile missione oltre che dalle aspettative e prospettive future.

Orazio Valsecchi  Paolo Ferrazzi

Bergamo 29 febbraio 2008

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Per chi volesse approfondire il campo di ricerca del Dottor Orazio Valsecchi può leggere l’articolo qui di seguito riportato:

III.  Localized Hypersensitivity and Late Coronary Thrombosis Secondary to a Sirolimus-Eluting Stent. Should We Be Cautious? Clinical Investigation and Reports

Circulation. 2004;109:701-705.
© 2004 American Heart Association, Inc.

From the Department of Cardiovascular Pathology, Armed Forces Institute of Pathology, Washington, DC (R.V., A.F., F.D.K.), and the Cardiovascular (G.G., G.M., N.G., L.M., M.T., O.V.) and Pathology (T.M.) Departments, Ospedali Riuniti di Bergamo, Bergamo, Italy.
 

 

 

 

 
 

 

*    Introduction
*Introduction
down arrowCase Report
down arrowDiscussion
down arrowReferences
 

 

 

 

 
 

The drug-eluting stent (DES) era was ushered in with the first published human study by Sousa et al1 in 2001 showing a nearly complete abolition of neointimal hyperplasia by use of the sirolimus-eluting stent (Cypher, Cordis Johnson & Johnson). Cypher stents are coated with a thin layer of a poly-n-butyl methacrylate and polyethylene–vinyl acetate copolymer containing 140 µg sirolimus (Wyeth-Ayers).2 Since the approval of Cypher stents in Europe and the United States, a total of 450 000 units have been distributed worldwide as of October 20, 2003,3 reflecting an increasing percentage of the >1.5 million individuals treated annually with coronary stents. The incidence of subacute and late stent thrombosis within the first 30 days in patients randomized to Cypher in clinical trials is reported to be no different from that with control bare metal stents.4–6 Long-term published follow-up data are available only up to 2 years in 45 patients in the “First in Man” study7 and up to 1 year in 120 patients enrolled in the Randomized Study with Sirolimus-Coated Bx Velocity Balloon-Expandable Stent (RAVEL) trial.8,9 The Food and Drug Administration, along with Cordis Johnson & Johnson, have posted adverse event information for physicians; there have been >290 reports of subacute thrombosis (of which 60 have been fatal) and 50 reports of possible hypersensitivity reactions.3 The rates and reasons of these adverse outcomes associated with Cypher stent use are unknown.
This report describes the first case of fatal acute myocardial infarction and cardiac rupture as a result of late thrombosis of a Cypher stent deployed 18 months previously. The patient, enrolled in the European Sirolimus Eluting Stent in De Novo Native Coronary Lesions (E-SIRIUS) trial, developed a hypersensitivity reaction limited to the coronary artery wall surrounding the stent.

 

*    Case Report

up arrowIntroduction
*Case Report
down arrowDiscussion
down arrowReferences
 

 

 

 

 
 

A 58-year-old man was first seen in December 2001 with unstable angina. The patient was a smoker, with hyperlipidemia, without a history of diabetes and hypertension. A coronary angiogram showed a >20-mm-long 95% diameter stenosis extending from the proximal to mid left circumflex coronary artery (LCx) (Figure 1), a 70% diameter stenosis in the mid left anterior descending coronary artery (LAD), and a noncritical lesion in the proximal right coronary artery (RCA). The patient was enrolled in the E-SIRIUS trial and randomized to the sirolimus-eluting stent group.5 The LCx artery lesion was predilated with an undersized balloon (2.5 mm at 14 atm), and 2 sirolimus-eluting Cypher stents (3.0x18 mm and 2.5x18 mm) were implanted with a 1-mm overlap. The proximal stent was postdilated with a noncompliant balloon. Intravascular ultrasound (IVUS) imaging was performed at the end of the stent procedure, and quantitative angiographic and volumetric IVUS analyses were measured by independent core laboratories (Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Boston, Mass, and Cardialysis, BV, Rotterdam, the Netherlands). The reference laboratory determined a minimal reference lumen and stent diameter of 2.3 mm. The patient was discharged without in-hospital complications on ticlopidine, aspirin, simvastatin, and ß-blocker.

 


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Figure 1. Baseline angiogram (A, right anterior oblique projection) showing 95% narrowing of mid LCx (arrow). Two overlapping Cypher stents (3x18 and 2.5x18 mm) (arrow) were placed (postdeployment angiogram, B). Stents (arrow) were widely patent 8 months after deployment (C) and similar to angiogram in B. At 18 months (D), there was total occlusion at site of proximal Cypher stent (arrow).
 

 

 

 

 
 

Three weeks later, the patient presented to the clinic with a skin rash on the trunk, neck, ankle, and wrist with itching and irritation; there was no previous history of allergy. The reaction was interpreted as an allergic response to ticlopidine, which was discontinued and replaced by clopidogrel 75 mg/d for 2 months. At this time, the total leukocyte count was normal, without eosinophilia. The rash resolved within a few days.
At 8 months after stenting, per protocol, the patient underwent follow-up angiography and IVUS. Angiographic quantitative coronary arteriography and IVUS imaging demonstrated an absence of in-stent restenosis or neointimal proliferation (Figures 1 and 2Down). Laboratory blood tests were normal, including a total eosinophil count of 140 µL. The patient remained asymptomatic at 1-year clinical follow-up, with a negative isotope stress test.

 


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Figure 2. Longitudinal reconstruction of IVUS of stented LCx (top image, immediately after stent deployment; bottom image, 8-month follow-up) illustrating borders of artery wall (green line), stent (blue line), and lumen (red line). Note increased plaque volume and vessel size (indicative of positive remodeling, arrowheads) at 8 months, with nearly absent neointimal thickening.
 

 

 

 

 
 

Eighteen months after stenting, the patient developed an episode of epigastric and retrosternal chest pain with syncope followed by prompt recovery. Over the next few days, the individual experienced recurrent episodes of intermittent chest pain and was admitted to the coronary care unit with a diagnosis of a recent non–Q-wave myocardial infarction (peak creatine kinase of 423 U/L and a troponin I of 34 ng/mL). The patient was now asymptomatic and was treated with heparin, ß-blockers, aspirin, and intravenous nitroglycerin. There was no fever, and the leukocyte count was normal, without evidence of eosinophilia. Coronary angiography 8 days after the onset of chest pain showed occlusion of the LCx at the entrance of the proximal Cypher stent, with TIMI grade 1 flow. In addition, there was progressive stenosis of lesions in the mid LAD and proximal RCA. A careful attempt to cross the LCx stenosis with a floppy guidewire was unsuccessful (Figure 1). Soon thereafter, the patient experienced a sudden profound hypotension immediately followed by cardiorespiratory arrest and pulseless electrical activity; resuscitation attempts were unsuccessful.
An autopsy limited to the heart and brain was performed. A 300-mL hemorrhagic pericardial effusion was present associated with a ruptured acute transmural basal lateral myocardial infarction. The coronary arteries were dissected free from the heart and radiographed (Figure 3, A and B). The 2 sequential Cypher stents were observed in close apposition but without overlap (Figure 3B). The adventitial surface of the LCx artery in the region of the distal stent was hemorrhagic, and the proximal stented segment was dilated. The stented region of the LCx was processed for methylmethacrylate embedding and sectioned at 3-mm intervals for a total of 12 sections. The remainder of the epicardial coronary arteries were sectioned at 3- to 4-mm intervals and embedded in paraffin.

 


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Figure 3. Postmortem radiographs (A and B) showing 2 LCx Cypher stents; note absence of stent overlap (B). Photomicrographs of representative cross sections of proximal (C and D) and distal (E and F) Cypher stents. Focal strut malapposition with aneurysmal dilatation (double arrows in D and F) and occlusive luminal thrombosis (Th, C and D) are present. G to J, High-power views of stented artery from proximal (C and D) and distal (E) boxed areas. G, Luminal thrombus (Th) above stent struts with absence of smooth muscle cells. There is diffuse inflammation within intima and media (H, boxed area in D). I, (right box in E), Extensive inflammation consisting primarily of eosinophils and lymphocytes, with a focal giant cell reaction around stent strut (*) and surrounding polymer. Marked inflammation is similarly present in intima, media, and adventitia in J (left box in E). K and L (Luna stains) show giant cells (arrowheads) around a polymer remnant that has separated from stent strut and numerous eosinophils within arterial wall. M through O, Immunohistochemical identification of T cells (CD45Ro), B cells (CD20), and macrophages (CD68), respectively; T lymphocytes are predominant inflammatory cell type.
 

 

 

 

 
 

The stented LCx showed an occlusive luminal thrombus, starting at the mouth of the proximal stent and partially obstructing the distal stent (Figure 3, C through F). The wall of the stented artery was aneurysmally dilated with an extensive inflammatory infiltrate involving the intima, media, and adventitia consisting of lymphocytes, plasma cells, macrophages, and eosinophils. The luminal surface of the proximal stent was surrounded by fibrin-rich thrombus with sparse smooth muscle cells, whereas the distal stent showed an extensive inflammatory infiltrate consisting predominantly of lymphocytes and eosinophils and occasional giant cells (Figure 3, G through J). The abluminal surfaces of the proximal and distal stent were focally malapposed, with thick layers of fibrin thrombus separating the stent from the underlying plaque and arterial wall (Figure 3, D and F). The proximal stented artery also showed focal giant cell reaction surrounding a few polymer remnants that had become separated from the stent struts (Figure 3K). Although no medial necrosis or neutrophil infiltrates were observed in any of the sections, the inflammatory cells diffusely infiltrated the media, causing medial disruption and destruction.
Immunostains for inflammatory cells in the intima, media, and adventitia revealed dominant T-lymphocyte infiltration (CD45Ro) with scattered B lymphocytes (CD20) and less numerous macrophages (CD68) (Figure 3, M through O). Luna stains showed an extensive eosinophilic infiltration, especially prominent in the distal stent in the adventitia, media, and intima around stent struts (Figure 3, K and L). Stains for bacteria and fungi were negative. Collectively, these pathological changes are consistent with a localized hypersensitivity reaction.
Severe arterial stenoses were found in the nonstented lesions of the LAD and RCA; however, no significant inflammation or eosinophilic infiltrates were present.

 

*    Discussion
up arrowIntroduction
up arrowCase Report
*Discussion
down arrowReferences
 

 

 

 

 
 

This is the first case of a localized hypersensitivity vasculitis in response to a Cypher coronary stent resulting in an acute myocardial infarction secondary to late in-stent thrombosis at 18 months. The hypersensitivity reaction could be caused by the metallic stent, polymer, or sirolimus. Available pathological evidence, however, supports the hypothesis that hypersensitivity to the polymer is the most likely mechanism.
Hypersensitivity to metals such as molybdenum, nickel, and chromium has been reported in 10% of patients undergoing stenting.10 To the best of our knowledge, hypersensitivity to bare stainless steel stents has been associated with restenosis and not thrombosis, and a late eosinophil-rich infiltrate has not been reported in human stented arteries. We have examined >400 stainless steel stents placed in human coronary arteries, and of these, {approx}150 have been in place >3 months; to date, none of the latter group show an eosinophilic reaction near the stent.11 In bare metal stents, inflammation around stent struts typically consists of macrophages and T lymphocytes, with a few B lymphocytes and giant cells. Moreover, the extent of inflammation correlates with the presence of restenosis, whereas in the present case, there was little to no underlying neointima.11 Remarkably, adventitial eosinophilic infiltrates are found primarily in patients with spontaneous coronary dissection. It is usually an acute phenomenon occurring soon after dissection of the artery; healed spontaneous dissections typically do not show inflammation.
We recently reported pathological findings of late stent thrombosis >=30 days with bare metal stents.12 The mechanism of late thrombosis was stenting across a major branch ostium with either single or bifurcating stents, brachytherapy, plaque rupture just proximal or distal to the stent, extensive necrotic core prolapse, and in-stent restenosis with thrombosis. In these cases, there was no evidence of excessive inflammation of the arterial wall or infiltration of eosinophils. Incomplete neointimal healing was present in 12 of 13 cases with late thrombosis. In the present case, the marked hypersensitivity reaction clearly prevented arterial healing and was probably not exaggerated during the interval after the onset of chest pain and death, because this is not observed in the arterial wall in fatal cases of plaque rupture.
The hypersensitivity in the present patient was unlikely to have been caused by sirolimus, because pharmacokinetic studies performed in dogs and rabbits show that the drug is undetectable in the arterial wall by 60 days.2,13 Despite widespread use of oral sirolimus for transplant rejection (kidney and heart), we know of only 1 case report of leukoclastic vasculitis to sirolimus.14 Conversely, sirolimus has been shown to suppress eosinophilic infiltration in an animal model of bronchial hypersensitivity.15 Adverse side effects to sirolimus are limited primarily to bone marrow suppression and hypercholesterolemia and hypertriglyceridemia.16 Other reported side effects include hypokalemia, hyperglycemia, diarrhea, and abnormal liver function.17
Polymers like those in latex and vinyl gloves, methylmethacrylate in dentistry, and polyurethane, among others, have been shown to produce hypersensitivity reactions in some individuals.18–20 However, many nonbioerodable polymers [polyurethane, poly(dimethyl)siloxane (silicone), and polyethylene terephthalate (Dacron)] are known to promote inflammation when implanted in swine coronary arteries.21–23 Most inflammatory reactions to polymers involve macrophages and multinucleated giant cells and lymphocytes without eosinophils. In studies unrelated to stents, poly-n-butyl methacrylate, a component of bone cement and the same polymer coating as used in Cypher stents, when implanted subcutaneously promotes a macrophage and giant cell reaction accompanied by tissue damage and fibrosis.24 In addition, the polyethylene–vinyl acetate component of the Cypher copolymer, when used as an antigen-delivery matrix, has been shown to elicit inflammation in 25% of rabbits.25
Although there are no reports of excessive inflammation with Cypher stents in animals, our laboratory has observed inflammatory reactions in the arterial walls of pig coronary arteries with 28- and 90-day stainless steel26 and DESs (including Cypher, R.V., unpublished data, October 2003). Granulomas occur in 10% to 20% of implanted porcine coronary stents and involve either a few or multiple stent struts. Inflammatory infiltrates typically consist of lymphocytes, macrophages, giant cells, neutrophils, and eosinophils. In stainless steel stents, inflammation is usually much less pronounced at 90 days than at 28 days, whereas the reciprocal effect is found in DESs with nonerodable polymers. In DESs, there are often greater numbers of eosinophils, localized primarily to stent struts, which may extend into the lumen and adjoining media and adventitia. The inflammation is usually accompanied by excessive neointimal thickening, and thrombosis is infrequent.
The hypersensitivity to the Cypher stents was most likely present at 8 months after deployment, because significant vessel enlargement and persistent positive remodeling was found by IVUS. Furthermore, there was progressive enlargement of the artery, with aneurysm formation between 8 and 18 months. The significant malapposition noted in both proximal and distal stents probably occurred in the last 10 months of life; only focal late malapposition was observed at 8 months. In the RAVEL trial, late stent malapposition was found in 21% of Cypher stent implants, compared with 4% in control BX Velocity stents27; 1 patient with a Cypher stent developed an aneurysm.28 Lower rates of malapposition were reported in the SIRIUS trial (9% in Cypher versus 0% in bare metal stents) without any clinical events present at 18 months.29 A regional increase in external elastic membrane remodeling may represent the main cause of late stent malapposition.30 Although the precise mechanism(s) of late stent malapposition and thrombosis in our case are unknown, inflammatory destruction of the medial wall may have caused further dilation accompanied by the accumulation of fibrin between stent struts and native plaque, suggesting a relationship between malapposition, inflammation, and thrombosis.
In October of 2003, a US Food and Drug Administration Public Health Web Health Alert notified physicians of possible generalized hypersensitivity reactions in 50 patients receiving Cypher stents.3 The symptoms included pain, rash, respiratory alterations, hives, itching, fever, and blood pressure changes. None of these findings were documented in our patient at the time of death, and the hypersensitivity reaction was localized to the stented arterial segment at 18 months, when the drug is completely eluted off the stent. In this case, the polymer may serve as an antigenic stimulus resulting in a T-lymphocyte and/or foreign body response accompanied by eosinophils. Activated T lymphocytes, specifically CD4 helper cells, may secrete interleukins 4 and 13, causing an allergic response with eosinophilic infiltration.31
There is a likely spectrum of allergic responses to DESs in sensitive patients, varying from benign reactions to excessive inflammation with medial destruction, stent malapposition, and aneurysm formation with late in-stent thrombosis. The enhanced surveillance of patients with DES for late complications along with the development of tests to prescreen individuals with potential reactions to polymers may help avoid some of the late-term complications with DES. Continued efforts to improve polymer biocompatibility are warranted.

 

*    Footnotes
 

 

 

 

 
 

Dr Guagliumi has a consultant agreement with Cordis, the manufacturer of the stent that is the subject of this article.
The opinions or assertions contained herein are the private views of the authors and are not to be construed as official or as reflecting the views of the Department of the Army or the Department of Defense.
This article originally appeared Online on January 26, 2004 (Circulation. 2004;109:r38–r42).

 

*    References
up arrowIntroduction
up arrowCase Report
up arrowDiscussion
*References
 

 

 

 

 
 

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